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Constants are expressions with a fixed value.

Literals

Literals are the most obvious kind of constants. They are used to express particular values within the source code of a program. We have already used some in previous chapters to give specific values to variables or to express messages we wanted our programs to print out, for example, when we wrote:
The 5 in this piece of code was a literal constant.
Literal constants can be classified into: integer, floating-point, characters, strings, Boolean, pointers, and user-defined literals.

Integer Numerals

These are numerical constants that identify integer values. Notice that they are not enclosed in quotes or any other special character; they are a simple succession of digits representing a whole number in decimal base; for example, 1776 always represents the value one thousand seven hundred seventy-six.
In addition to decimal numbers (those that most of us use every day), C++ allows the use of octal numbers (base 8) and hexadecimal numbers (base 16) as literal constants. For octal literals, the digits are preceded with a 0 (zero) character. And for hexadecimal, they are preceded by the characters 0x (zero, x). For example, the following literal constants are all equivalent to each other:
All of these represent the same number: 75 (seventy-five) expressed as a base-10 numeral, octal numeral and hexadecimal numeral, respectively.
These literal constants have a type, just like variables. By default, integer literals are of type int. However, certain suffixes may be appended to an integer literal to specify a different integer type:

Suffix	Type modifier
uorU	unsigned
lorL	long
llorLL	long long

Unsigned may be combined with any of the other two in any order to form unsigned long or unsigned long long.
For example:

In all the cases above, the suffix can be specified using either upper or lowercase letters.

Floating Point Numerals

They express real values, with decimals and/or exponents. They can include either a decimal point, an e character (that expresses 'by ten at the Xth height', where X is an integer value that follows the e character), or both a decimal point and an e character:
These are four valid numbers with decimals expressed in C++. The first number is PI, the second one is the number of Avogadro, the third is the electric charge of an electron (an extremely small number) -all of them approximated-, and the last one is the number three expressed as a floating-point numeric literal.
The default type for floating-point literals is double. Floating-point literals of type float or long double can be specified by adding one of the following suffixes:

Suffix	Type
forF	float
lorL	long double

For example:

Any of the letters that can be part of a floating-point numerical constant (e, f, l) can be written using either lower or uppercase letters with no difference in meaning.

Character and string literals

Character and string literals are enclosed in quotes:
The first two expressions represent single-character literals, and the following two represent string literals composed of several characters. Notice that to represent a single character, we enclose it between single quotes ('), and to express a string (which generally consists of more than one character), we enclose the characters between double quotes (').
Both single-character and string literals require quotation marks surrounding them to distinguish them from possible variable identifiers or reserved keywords. Notice the difference between these two expressions:
x
'x'

Here, x alone would refer to an identifier, such as the name of a variable or a compound type, whereas 'x' (enclosed within single quotation marks) would refer to the character literal 'x' (the character that represents a lowercase x letter).
Character and string literals can also represent special characters that are difficult or impossible to express otherwise in the source code of a program, like newline (n) or tab (t). These special characters are all of them preceded by a backslash character ().
Here you have a list of the single character escape codes:

Escape code	Description
n	newline
r	carriage return
t	tab
v	vertical tab
b	backspace
f	form feed (page feed)
a	alert (beep)
'	single quote (')
'	double quote (')
?	question mark (?)
	backslash ()

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For example:
'n'
't'
'Left t Right'
'onentwonthree'

Internally, computers represent characters as numerical codes: most typically, they use one extension of the ASCII character encoding system (see ASCII code for more info). Characters can also be represented in literals using its numerical code by writing a backslash character () followed by the code expressed as an octal (base-8) or hexadecimal (base-16) number. For an octal value, the backslash is followed directly by the digits; while for hexadecimal, an x character is inserted between the backslash and the hexadecimal digits themselves (for example: x20 or x4A).
Several string literals can be concatenated to form a single string literal simply by separating them by one or more blank spaces, including tabs, newlines, and other valid blank characters. For example:

The above is a string literal equivalent to:
Note how spaces within the quotes are part of the literal, while those outside them are not.
Some programmers also use a trick to include long string literals in multiple lines: In C++, a backslash () at the end of line is considered a line-continuation character that merges both that line and the next into a single line. Therefore the following code:

is equivalent to:
All the character literals and string literals described above are made of characters of type char. A different character type can be specified by using one of the following prefixes:

Prefix	Character type
u	char16_t
U	char32_t
L	wchar_t

Note that, unlike type suffixes for integer literals, these prefixes are case sensitive: lowercase for char16_t and uppercase for char32_t and wchar_t.
For string literals, apart from the above u, U, and L, two additional prefixes exist:

Prefix	Description
u8	The string literal is encoded in the executable using UTF-8
R	The string literal is a raw string

In raw strings, backslashes and single and double quotes are all valid characters; the content of the literal is delimited by an initial R'sequence( and a final )sequence', where sequence is any sequence of characters (including an empty sequence). The content of the string is what lies inside the parenthesis, ignoring the delimiting sequence itself. For example:

Both strings above are equivalent to 'string with backslash'. The R prefix can be combined with any other prefixes, such as u, L or u8.

Other literals

Three keyword literals exist in C++: true, false and nullptr:

• true and false are the two possible values for variables of type bool.
• nullptr is the null pointer value.

Typed constant expressions

Sometimes, it is just convenient to give a name to a constant value:

We can then use these names instead of the literals they were defined to:

Preprocessor definitions (#define)

Another mechanism to name constant values is the use of preprocessor definitions. They have the following form:
#define identifier replacement
After this directive, any occurrence of identifier in the code is interpreted as replacement, where replacement is any sequence of characters (until the end of the line). This replacement is performed by the preprocessor, and happens before the program is compiled, thus causing a sort of blind replacement: the validity of the types or syntax involved is not checked in any way.
For example:

Note that the #define lines are preprocessor directives, and as such are single-line instructions that -unlike C++ statements- do not require semicolons (;) at the end; the directive extends automatically until the end of the line. If a semicolon is included in the line, it is part of the replacement sequence and is also included in all replaced occurrences.

Previous: Variables and types

Index

Next: Operators

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Note

For info about installing and using the C++/WinRT Visual Studio Extension (VSIX) (which provides project template support) see Visual Studio support for C++/WinRT.

This topic is up front so that you're aware of it right away; even if you don't need it yet. The table of troubleshooting symptoms and remedies below may be helpful to you whether you're cutting new code or porting an existing app. If you're porting, and you're eager to forge ahead and get to the stage where your project builds and runs, then you can make temporary progress by commenting or stubbing out any non-essential code that's causing issues, and then returning to pay off that debt later.

For a list of frequently-asked questions, see Frequently-asked questions.

Tracking down XAML issues

XAML parse exceptions can be difficult to diagnose—particularly if there are no meaningful error messages within the exception. Make sure that the debugger is configured to catch first-chance exceptions (to try and catch the parsing exception early on). You may be able to inspect the exception variable in the debugger to determine whether the HRESULT or message has any useful information. Also, check Visual Studio's output window for error messages output by the XAML parser.

If your app terminates and all you know is that an unhandled exception was thrown during XAML markup parsing, then that could be the result of a reference (by key) to a missing resource. Or, it could be an exception thrown inside a UserControl, a custom control, or a custom layout panel. A last resort is a binary split. Remove about half of the markup from a XAML Page and re-run the app. You will then know whether the error is somewhere inside the half you removed (which you should now restore in any case) or in the half you did not remove. Repeat the process by splitting the half that contains the error, and so on, until you've zeroed in on the issue.

Symptoms and remedies

Symptom	Remedy
An exception is thrown at runtime with a HRESULT value of REGDB_E_CLASSNOTREGISTERED.	See Why am I getting a 'class not registered' exception?.
The C++ compiler produces the error ''implements_type': is not a member of any direct or indirect base class of '<projected type>''.	This can happen when you call make with the namespace-unqualified name of your implementation type (MyRuntimeClass, for example), and you haven't included that type's header. The compiler interprets MyRuntimeClass as the projected type. The solution is to include the header for your implementation type (MyRuntimeClass.h, for example).
The C++ compiler produces the error 'attempting to reference a deleted function'.	This can happen when you call make and the implementation type that you pass as the template parameter has an = delete default constructor. Edit the implementation type's header file and change = delete to = default. You can also add a constructor into the IDL for the runtime class.
You've implemented INotifyPropertyChanged, but your XAML bindings are not updating (and the UI is not subscribing to PropertyChanged).	Remember to set Mode=OneWay (or TwoWay) on your binding expression in XAML markup. See XAML controls; bind to a C++/WinRT property.
You're binding a XAML items control to an observable collection, and an exception is thrown at runtime with the message 'The parameter is incorrect'.	In your IDL and your implementation, declare any observable collection as the type Windows.Foundation.Collections.IVector. But return an object that implements Windows.Foundation.Collections.IObservableVector, where T is your element type. See XAML items controls; bind to a C++/WinRT collection.
The C++ compiler produces an error of the form ''MyImplementationType_base<MyImplementationType>': no appropriate default constructor available'.	This can happen when you have derived from a type that has a non-trivial constructor. Your derived type's constructor needs to pass along the parameters that the base type's constructor needs. For a worked example, see Deriving from a type that has a non-trivial constructor.
The C++ compiler produces the error 'cannot convert from 'const std::vector<std::wstring,std::allocator<_Ty>>' to 'const winrt::param::async_iterable<winrt::hstring> &''.	This can happen when you pass a std::vector of std::wstring to a Windows Runtime API that expects a collection. For more info, see Standard C++ data types and C++/WinRT.
The C++ compiler produces the error 'cannot convert from 'const std::vector<winrt::hstring,std::allocator<_Ty>>' to 'const winrt::param::async_iterable<winrt::hstring> &''.	This can happen when you pass a std::vector of winrt::hstring to an asynchronous Windows Runtime API that expects a collection, and you've neither copied nor moved the vector to the async callee. For more info, see Standard C++ data types and C++/WinRT.
When opening a project, Visual Studio produces the error 'The application for the project is not installed'.	If you haven't already, you need to install Windows Universal tools for C++ development from within Visual Studio's New Project dialog. If that doesn't resolve the issue, then the project may depend on the C++/WinRT Visual Studio Extension (VSIX) (see Visual Studio support for C++/WinRT.
The Windows App Certification Kit tests produce an error that one of your runtime classes 'does not derive from a Windows base class. All composable classes must ultimately derive from a type in the Windows namespace'.	Any runtime class (that you declare in your application) that derives from a base class is known as a composable class. The ultimate base class of a composable class must be a type originating in a Windows.* namespace; for example, Windows.UI.Xaml.DependencyObject. See XAML controls; bind to a C++/WinRT property for more details.
The C++ compiler produces a 'must be WinRT type' error for an EventHandler or TypedEventHandler delegate specialization.	Consider using winrt::delegate<..T> instead. See Author events in C++/WinRT.
The C++ compiler produces a 'must be WinRT type' error for a Windows Runtime asynchronous operation specialization.	Consider returning a Parallel Patterns Library (PPL) task instead. See Concurrency and asynchronous operations.
The C++ compiler produces 'error C2220: warning treated as error - no 'object' file generated'.	Either correct the warning, or set C/C++ > General > Treat Warnings As Errors to No (/WX-).
Your app crashes because an event handler in your C++/WinRT object is called after the object has been destroyed.	See Safely accessing the this pointer with an event-handling delegate.
The C++ compiler produces 'error C2338: This is only for weak ref support'.	You're requesting a weak reference for a type that passed the winrt::no_weak_ref marker struct as a template argument to its base class. See Opting out of weak reference support.
The C++ linker produces 'error LNK2019: Unresolved external symbol'	See Why is the linker giving me a 'LNK2019: Unresolved external symbol' error?.
The LLVM and Clang toolchain produces errors when used with C++/WinRT.	We don't support the LLVM and Clang toolchain for C++/WinRT, but if you wanted to emulate how we use it internally, then you could try an experiment such as the one described in Can I use LLVM/Clang to compile with C++/WinRT?.
The C++ compiler produces 'no appropriate default constructor available' for a projected type.	If you're trying to delay the initialization of a runtime class object, or to consume and implement a runtime class in the same project, then you'll need to call the std::nullptr_t constructor. For more info, see Consume APIs with C++/WinRT.
The C++ compiler produces 'error C3861: 'from_abi': identifier not found', and other errors originating in base.h. You may see this error if you are using Visual Studio 2017 (version 15.8.0 or higher), and targeting the Windows SDK version 10.0.17134.0 (Windows 10, version 1803).	Either target a later (more conformant) version of the Windows SDK, or set project property C/C++ > Language > Conformance mode: No (also, if /permissive- appears in project property C/C++ > Language > Command Line under Additional Options, then delete it).
The C++ compiler produces 'error C2039: 'IUnknown': is not a member of '`global namespace''.	See How to retarget your C++/WinRT project to a later version of the Windows SDK.
The C++ linker produces 'error LNK2019: unresolved external symbol _WINRT_CanUnloadNow@0 referenced in function _VSDesignerCanUnloadNow@0'	See How to retarget your C++/WinRT project to a later version of the Windows SDK.
The build process produces the error message The C++/WinRT VSIX no longer provides project build support. Please add a project reference to the Microsoft.Windows.CppWinRT Nuget package.	Install the Microsoft.Windows.CppWinRT NuGet package into your project. For details, see Earlier versions of the VSIX extension.
The C++ linker produces error LNK2019: unresolved external symbol, with a mention of winrt::impl::consume_Windows_Foundation_Collections_IVector.	As of C++/WinRT 2.0, If you're using a range-based for on a Windows Runtime collection, then you'll now need to #include <winrt/Windows.Foundation.Collections.h>.
The C++ compiler produces 'error C4002: Too many arguments for function-like macro invocation GetCurrentTime'.	See How do I resolve ambiguities with GetCurrentTime and/or TRY?.
The C++ compiler produces 'error C2334: unexpected token(s) preceding '{'; skipping apparent function body'.	See How do I resolve ambiguities with GetCurrentTime and/or TRY?.
The C++ compiler produces 'winrt::impl::produce<D,I> cannot instantiate abstract class, due to missing GetBindingConnector'.	You need to #include <winrt/Windows.UI.Xaml.Markup.h>.
The C++ compiler produces 'error C2039: 'promise_type': is not a member of 'std::experimental::coroutine_traits''.	Your coroutine needs to return either an asynchronous operation object, or winrt::fire_and_forget. See Concurrency and asynchronous operations.
Your project produces 'ambiguous access of 'PopulatePropertyInfoOverride''.	This error can occur when you declare one base class in your IDL and a different base class in your XAML markup.
Loading a C++/WinRT solution for the first time produces 'Designtime build failed for project 'MyProject.vcxproj' configuration 'Debug x86'. IntelliSense might be unavailable.'.	This IntelliSense issue will resolve after you build for the first time.
Attempting to specify winrt::auto_revoke when registering a delegate produces a winrt::hresult_no_interface exception.	See If your auto-revoke delegate fails to register.

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If this topic didn't answer your question, then you might find help by visiting the Visual Studio C++ developer community, or by using the c++-winrt tag on Stack Overflow.